I read through the Qur'an on my recent academic leave. Since then, I've had a number of friends ask for my thoughts and reflections on it. Clearly there is more that could be said, but I thought I'd share in this post a few reflections that were the specific focus of my seminary assignment. While I cannot say that I "enjoyed" the reading, I did find it fascinating to learn for myself what is and isn't in this book that western society has so many stereotypes and misconceptions about.
What follows is a series of reflections on the Qur'an, particularly focusing on the development of a few key themes and comparing the different chronological sura (chapter) groupings to one another, as well as some passing observations regarding similarities to biblical genres. For those who are not aware, the suras in the Qur'an are not laid out chronologically, but generally by descending size (longer to shorter). Thus, reading according to chronological order gives a very different impression.
1. Introduction
In this essay I shall share some brief personal reflections on the Qur’an according to the four chronological groupings given by Theodor Noldeke. These reflections will of necessity offer only a superficial analysis and comparison due to their brevity. Nevertheless, we shall highlight some key areas of differentiation and the development of particular themes across the four groupings. These will be broken into the first, second and third Meccan suras and finally the Medinan suras.
2. First Meccan Suras
We are immediately struck by the heavy focus on eschatological judgment. Overall, the horrors of hell are described with more vivid detail than the delights of paradise. One point of interest in the description of paradise is the mention of nubile virgins. This particular description is absent in the later suras. Presumably, this change could be explained by the increase of more female followers. One might be warranted in underscoring final judgment as the primary motif of the first Meccan suras.
In connection with judgment, one’s attention is drawn to note the ethical requirements on which judgment is based. Beyond the requirement of faith itself in God and the final judgment, the vast majority of ethical requirements in this grouping have to do with caring for the needy and practicing charity. Connected with this is a condemnation of living in luxury and hoarding wealth. There are very scarce mentions of the other obligations which appear in later groupings, particularly the Medinan suras. Notably, 'ritual' obligations (having to do with external purity, clothing, foods, etc.) are entirely absent at this stage. Prayer is mentioned as a mark of piety but there are no detailed instructions regarding its performance. Forgiveness is mentioned infrequently compared to later suras and seemingly available only for less serious sins.
Also absent in the first grouping of suras is any real interaction with the 'People of the Book', i.e., Jews and Christians. Muhammad is compared with Moses as a similar example of a reject prophet. However, the Children of Israel are not directly mentioned and there is no real interaction with Jewish or Christian positions. This becomes prevalent in later suras. The primary interaction with non-Muslim worldviews seems to be with the pagans of Mecca.
The overall style of these suras strikes us as rather abrupt which fits with the heavy eschatological warnings. If one were to attempt a comparison with biblical literature, the first Meccan suras would likely be closest in style and content to some passages warning of impending judgment in the prophetic books as well as potentially some similarly themed sayings of Jesus.
3. Second Meccan Suras
This grouping of suras represents a significant shift in both content and style from the first Meccan grouping. One can understand why the charge was brought against Muhammad by some in Mecca (sura 16:103) that he was taught the content by a foreigner (presumably, a Jew is implied). The content of the second Meccan as well as the third Meccan suras shows a deep familiarity with the narratives of the Old Testament, though a number of details are either added or changed in comparison with the biblical accounts. In a few instances, more details or corrections to previous suras are added with the progression of time. For example, the identity of the woman left behind in the story of Lot is updated from just an 'old woman' to his wife as in the biblical account. This sura grouping shows most similarity with the third Meccan suras. Differences between the two are less stark than between either of them and the first Meccan or Medinan suras.
Another point of interest is the presentation of the Qur’an itself in the chronological development of the suras. While the Qur’an is presented as being a message from God throughout, the second Meccan suras add some details which are not mentioned in the first grouping. The Qur’an is stated to be easy to learn from with emphasis on the fact that is was given in Arabic—a fact not emphasized in the first Meccan grouping. Also newly introduced is the concept that no one could produce anything like the Qur’an. This statement is repeated and strengthened in later groupings. The second Meccan suras contain first mention of the gradual nature of revelation of the Qur’an (sura 25:32). This seems to be setting the stage for the doctrine of abrogation more fully developed in later groupings.
The second Meccan suras also see a notable shift in the focus of judgment. While the first grouping spoke of God’s judgement on the wicked in almost entirely future eschatological terms, this grouping puts much more emphasis on past temporal judgments of God brought upon those peoples who rejected the prophets sent to them. It is also notable that the balance of description of eschatological judgment shifts to more detailed description of paradise and less of hell as compared with the first grouping.
Overall this grouping engages much more with the Scriptures of the People of the Book, though engagement with Old Testament material is more prevalent than with the New Testament. The second Meccan suras also introduce direct address to the children of Israel. It is notable that this grouping employs more rational argumentation against pagan beliefs as compared to the blunt condemnation characteristic of the first grouping. This approach of a more apologetic engagement is continued in later groupings as well, particularly the third grouping. It remains present in the Medinan suras though the shift there turns more towards polemics and an attempt to safeguard the Islamic community and belief.
4. Third Meccan Suras
This grouping finds most similarity with the second Meccan suras. Likely in connection with their heavy drawing from the Old Testament, both also further develop a doctrine of creation, angels, devils and Satan. There are many details which align with the biblical narratives, though significant differences also exist (e.g., the absence of any 'image of God' language in the creation of humans).
This grouping further develops the idea that belief in God is rational. It uses much argumentation from creation, and engages in a number of analogies. The rational argumentation in this grouping can be observed, for example, when Muhammad addresses the unbelievers: 'Have you ever thought, what if this revelation really is from God and you still reject it?' (sura 41:52). This seems to approximate an argument like Pascal’s wager. Additionally, Muslims are called to engage in argument with courteousness and use reason rather than resort to any compulsion.
The Qur’an is described as using illustrations to make truth clear. It is said to be unassailable. This grouping further develops the idea that the Qur’an and its suras could not be replicated, that its revelation is itself a miracle. The Qur’an is said to be a confirmation and explanation of previous Scriptures and to be the most beautiful of teachings. This lays the groundwork for the teaching more fully developed in the Medinan suras that the Qur’an actually supersedes previous Scriptures, though the Meccan suras do not yet claim this. Additionally, it is in this grouping that the doctrine of abrogation is explicitly developed (sura 16:101).
This grouping expands the ethical requirements to include the 'ritual' cleanliness rules and lays out some dietary halal restrictions which are further elaborated in the Medinan suras. It also records the first mentions of Muslim apostasy and direct persecution of Muslims. As the community grew and developed into more of a political power heading towards an outright conflict with the Meccans, this seems a natural development.
Overall this grouping, as well as the second, contrasts rather strongly with the first Meccan and Medinan suras. The approach is one of rational arguments, presumably hoping to win over those yet unconvinced. In contrast, the first Meccan suras attempt to convince primarily through fear of eschatological judgment and the Medinan suras seem more concerned with drawing lines and safeguarding the Muslim community. The style and content of both the second and third groupings is reminiscent of biblical passages in the narrative genre, drawing particularly from Genesis and the first part of Exodus. In addition, the more strongly prosaic form of the second and third Meccan sura seems to stand in contrast with the more abrupt and even poetic forms of the first Meccan suras. Perhaps this shift could even be seen as a reaction to the accusations of the Meccans that Muhammad was merely a poet. Likely in conjunction with this, the second and third Meccan suras are, on average, much longer than those of the first grouping.
5. Medinan Suras
The final grouping of suras are from a significantly different period in the development of the Muslim community. In contrast to being a rejected prophet with some followers, Muhammad is now a full-fledged political and military leader. Thus, it is unsurprising to find much more focus in the Medinan suras on matters both legislative and military. This means that, among biblical literature, it is more similar to the legal codices in the Pentateuch and possibly the book of Joshua.
This grouping shifts to a much more hostile approach towards the People of the Book, particularly the Jews. It is said that all but a few of the People of the Book are actually just unbelievers and hypocrites. There is much more direct address to the People of the Book in these suras as well as interaction with specific arguments and teachings, particularly with Christian teachings mostly absent in the previous groupings. There is much more awareness of Christian conceptions of Jesus, though it is clear that the Qur’anic understanding of the Trinity is not an accurate representation of historic Christian orthodoxy.
There is much attention given to ritual cleanliness laws, including dietary restrictions and allowances, as well as cleanliness or defilement connected with various states of bodily discharge (menstruation, etc.). This grouping also has much attention given to family law surrounding divorce, inheritance, adoption, etc. While the ethical requirements of charity and honesty found in previous groupings are still present, they take up much less focus than the other ritual and legislative issues.
Another very clear contrast with previous groupings is the frequent mention of striving for the cause of God (jihad) as a mark of righteousness. As Muhammad had now gone from being merely a persecuted prophet to a military leader, this shift of focus is expected. Connected to this is the frequent theme of condemning Muslim hypocrites who refuse to fight for the sake of God. Together with the more polemic approach to the People of the Book, the tone of the Medinan suras is notably more aggressive overall than the second and third Meccan suras.
Finally, the Medinan suras present a much closer association of God with Muhammad. 'Obey God and the Messenger (Muhammad)' is a frequent refrain. It is also significant that the Qur’an is said to have final authority over previous Scriptures. In addition, this grouping lays out exceptions for Muhammad from regular rules—notably regarding the allowed number of wives, normally capped at four. One gets the distinct impression that political and military power did for Muhammad what it has done for too many in the history of the world: caused him to make himself an exception to the rules and set himself on a pedestal.
6. Conclusion
I am very aware of the cursory nature of these reflections and could wish that more might be written. Nevertheless, the preceding reflections have served to highlight a few areas of difference and development of themes across the chronological groupings of suras. I have found reading the Qur’an chronologically to be of great benefit in understanding how its teaching developed over time. In this way, the reading more closely approximates a cover-to-cover reading of the Bible which, with some exceptions, is laid out in a more chronological order of progression.
